In 1981, the Therrien Committee recommended the funding and licensing of indigenous television companies in order to preserve the use of Native languages and develop Native cultures through television. The Inuit Broadcasting Corporation (IBC), funded by the Canadian Federal Department of Indian and Northern Affairs (CAN$ 3.9 million a year), took the airwaves in January 1982, reaching 26 communities in Labrador, Northern Quebec (Nunavik) and the Northwest Territories (Nunavut).
    Of course, IBC could not afford its own satellite transponder (about CAN$ 1 million a year) and the CBC Television Northern Service could not integrate IBC's programs into its own schedule since its transponder was also (not to say mainly) used for traffic and syndication feeds. As a consequence, IBC's programs had to be carried when CBC was off the air, that is to say during the night. When CBC would sign off, it would give the free space to IBC instead of allowing the transponder to stay inactive. Once again, the ideal thing would have been for the CBC Television Northern Service to have its own transponder so as to offer both national and regional programming, following the example of the Radio Northern Service. (see p. 67)
    When IBC began broadcasting from its Iqaluit headquarters in January 1982, the programming included internal but also external productions coming from other Inuit broadcasting organisations such as Taqramiut Nipingat Incorporée (TNI) in Arctic Quebec and federal agencies such as the National Film Board. Over the years, IBC developed a number of programs about traditional culture, documentaries, children shows and current affairs shows with an Inuit point of view. As the number of programs increased, so did the Inuit audience, but the only problem was the lack of an appropriate distribution system. More money was needed...

    In 1983, the Federal government's Department of Communications implemented the Northern Broadcasting Policy. That policy, whose main instrument was the Northern Native Broadcast Access Program (NNBAP), set out five basic principles to guide Northern broadcasting's development: choice, exploitation of technology, opportunity to shape programming, fair access to Northern distribution systems and, consultation on policies and actions that affect aboriginal culture.
    The NNBAP was established on April 1, 1983 with a federal funding of nearly CAN$ 40 million over four years. Since 1983, its aim has been to foster radio and television programming through thirteen Native communication societies across the North such as IBC. The public funds are administered by the Native Citizens Directorate, a branch of the Department of the Secretary of State, and allocated to Native communication societies so as to allow them to have access to the technology and broadcasting facilities necessary to produce and distribute programs with a Native perspective. Unfortunately, in 1983, the lack of an appropriate distribution system still wrecked aboriginal broadcasters' efforts.
    Two years later, in 1985, the CRTC released its Northern Native Broadcasting Statement which established short-term measures to ensure native broadcasters have access to existing distribution system, which was not enough. Of course, Native communication societies such as IBC could not fill an entire broadcast day, seven days a week: their long-range goal was twenty-five hours a week. The only way for them to broadcast their own programs at appropriate times (e.g. on prime time) and fill the gaps in the schedule was to own local stations. Thus, they could play their own taped programs as well as put on the air live CBC syndication feeds. For instance, the CRTC licensed the Inuit Broadcasting Corporation in 1986 to operate a station in Spence Bay, NWT. The broadcasting licence comes in the following form(6):

CRTC - Broadcast

Ottawa, 10 February 1986
Decision CRTC 86-91
Inuit Broadcasting Corporation Spence Bay, Northwest Territories - 851729400

    Following a Public Hearing in Vancouver on 2 December 1985, the Commission approves the application for a broadcasting licence for an English and Inuktitut-language television station at Spence Bay on channel 13 with a transmitter power of 10 watts, to rebrodcast the programs of the CBC Eastern Television Service, received via satellite.

    The commission will issue a licence expiring 30 September 1990, subject to the conditions specified in this decision and in the licence to be issued.

    It is a condition of licence that construction of the station be completed and that it be in operation within twelve months of the date of this decision or such further period as the Commission may, upon receipt of a request for extension before the expiry of the said twelve months, deem appropriate under the circumstances.

    Fernand Bélisle
    Secretary General

    Doc. #: DEC86-91

    Still, this great improvement did not solve a continuous problem: the impossibility of programming live Native television programs. In 1986, the Caplan-Sauvageau report, issued by the Task Force on Broadcasting Policy, recommended a satellite transponder be dedicated to servicing Northern communities. The same conclusion was reached by Native communication societies, the CBC and the government of the Northwest Territories when they met in 1987 to discuss the future of television in the North: a satellite transponder was an absolute necessity.
    Finally, in 1988, after a number of tenders by Native broadcasters, the federal government announced it would finance a dedicated Northern Native television distribution system: Northern Natives would have their own satellite transponder and television network. Three years later, the 1991 Broadcasting Act recognised that aboriginal programming was an essential part of the Canadian broadcasting system. Section 3-d-iii of the Act states that the system should:

through its programming and the employment opportunities arising out of its operations, serve the needs and interests, and reflect the circumstances and aspirations of Canadian men, women and children, including equal rights, [...] and the special place of aboriginal peoples within [Canadian] society.

(1991 Broadcasting Act, http://www.crtc.gc.ca)

    This evolution was positive to a large extent but can we say it was perfect? It is quite difficult to appreciate Canada's Native Broadcasting Policy without comparing it to another country, that is to say with other solutions. In this respect, the evolution of Maori broadcasting in New Zealand is of particular interest.

    The Maori (10% of the population) were New Zealand's first inhabitants. They first came to New Zealand (Aotearoa) about 1000 years ago from Hawaiki, their Polynesian homeland, and developed a rich and complex culture over the years. European (Pakeha) colonisation began in the late 18th century and brought a long period of troubles and alienation for the Maori.
    Today, Maoritanga (Maori culture) is experiencing a flourishing renaissance. Songs, dances, traditional carving and Maori language are now taught in New Zealand schools. Internationally acclaimed writers such as Witi Ihimera, Alan Duff and Keri Hulme have left indelible marks on world literature and films such as Once Were Warriors have broken box office records. Maori television programs such as Marae (TV One) have also contributed to the renaissance of a live Maoritanga.
    Television in New Zealand came into existence in August 1960 as part commercial and part public service. The 1980s wind of economic liberalism led to a complete deregulation of the broadcasting industry. The 1989 Broadcasting Act set-up the framework for a more dynamic broadcasting environment. As a result, the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand was split into two state-owned commercially-operated enterprises, Television New Zealand Ltd. and Radio New Zealand Ltd. , and new regional or national competitors including TV3, TV4 and SKY appeared on the market.
    The 1989 Broadcasting Act also created a separate state agency, NZ On Air, with a mandate to enhance and ensure sufficient local material to reflect and develop New Zealand culture and identity as well as to provide for adequate representation of Maori and Maori interests. However, television is probably the most expensive medium and the cost of making local programs is far higher than buying Australian, British or US cheaper productions. Since NZ On Air's twofold objective could not be met within a commercial framework, it was to be partly funded by a broadcasting fee (currently NZ$ 110 [NZ$ 1= Euro 0.49]).
    Since 1995, NZ On Air's commitment to Maori broadcasting has been delivered through Te Mangai Paho, a separate and independent Maori broadcasting agency created by a direction from the Minister of Communications pursuant to Section 53L of the 1989 Broadcasting Act. This direction transferred 14.4% (NZ$ 12.6 million) of the Public Broadcasting Fee income (NZ$ 86.3 million in 1997) to the new agency. Te Mangai Paho funds and supports Maori television and radio programs primarily intended for Maori audiences whereas NZ On Air retains the responsibility under the 1989 Broadcasting Act to promote Maori language, culture and issues by funding programs for mainstream audiences either featuring Maori interests or originated by the Maori on the basis that the Maori are best equipped to make meaningful programs reflecting their culture as part of the mainstream (similar to the "cross-cultural programming" system developed by CBC).(see note 17 p. 33)
    In this new environment, the overall amount of New Zealand programming has increased dramatically from 2112 hours in 1988 to 5601 hours in 1997. Maori programming amost doubled (from 130 hours in 1988 to 256 in 1997).
    The main difference between the Maori and the Inuit is that the Maori do not have their own television network. Maori programs, intended for Maori audiences but also for mainstream audiences, are broadcast on the three major national channels, one of which (TV3) being a private corporation. How can we explain that?
    First, it has to be said that this type of situation is almost inconceivable in Canada where there are a great number of First Nations and as many different languages.
    In the second place, the Maori are considered as one of New Zealand's two founding peoples according to the Treaty of Waitangi (1840). Hence we can argue that their situation is somehow closer to the situtation of the French Canadians than that of the Inuit. So why is this example interesting?
    Maori broadcasting did not create a cultural ghetto. Maori programs, produced with public funds, are available throughout the country on three regular commercial (public and private) networks and not on a "reservation channel" which is closed in upon itself. Partly owing to Maori broadcasting, Maoritanga (Maori culture) has become an essential part of New Zealand's distinctiveness and cultural identity.

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